International Economic Sanctions. Part 1. History and Theory
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21564/2225-6555.2024.1(25).307000Keywords:
international law, restrictions, sanctions, sanctions policy, security, sovereigntyAbstract
The relevance of this research lies in examining the evolution of approaches to the application of international economic sanctions at the level of nation-states and international organizations; the reasons for their increasing popularity after the end of the Cold War; and determining the conditions for their effectiveness. The study aims to analyze and synthesize information on the application of economic sanctions, compare approaches to understanding their content and purpose across different historical periods, assess their humanitarian consequences, and formulate conclusions and recommendations for both theoretical and practical purposes. The research employed a wide range of approaches and methods, including the formal-legal method, which allowed for the formulation of basic terms, concepts, features, constructs, and classifications; the historical method, which aided in analyzing the evolution of approaches to the application of economic sanctions; the systemic method, which clarified the mechanisms for imposing, modifying, and lifting economic sanctions; and the comparative legal method of scientific inquiry, which was used to evaluate approaches to the legal regulation of economic sanctions at various stages of historical development. The results of the study include determining the role of international universal organizations, particularly the League of Nations and the UN, in recognizing and enshrining economic sanctions in international law as legitimate means of inducing sanctioned states to engage in desired activities. It has been established that the consequences of applying economic sanctions are ambiguous; in addition to positive effects, they can in some cases hinder peace processes and post-conflict recovery, impede the activities of peacekeeping organizations, undermine negotiations, and exacerbate disagreements between conflicting parties. Despite the possibility of negative consequences, economic sanctions remain popular as a means of demonstrating power or the ability to influence the behavior of a sanctioned government without resorting to military conflict. To mitigate the negative impact of sanctions on peacekeeping efforts, it is recommended that initiators set clear objectives when introducing economic sanctions; conduct regular substantive reviews of their impact; and expand exceptions to sanctions for peacekeeping activities, among other measures. The consequences of economic sanctions for the sanctioned country are primarily manifested in their impact on trade conditions. It is noted that economic sanctions are not necessarily more effective in the case of multilateral sanctions than in unilateral actions. The research observes that economic sanctions affect supporters and opponents of the ruling regime in the sanctioned country differently and may, in some cases, contribute to the consolidation of society around the ruling regime. The study concludes that despite existing shortcomings, economic sanctions have become an important tool for national governments and international organizations in responding to foreign policy challenges.
References
Galtung, J. (1967). On the Effects of International Economic Sanctions, with Examples from the Case of Rhodesia. World Politics, 19(3), 378-416.
Dashti-Gibson, J., Davis, P., & Radcliff, B. (1997). On the Determinants of the Success of Economic Sanctions: An Empirical Analysis. American Journal of Political Science, 41, 2, 608-618.
Doxey, M.P. (1980). Economic Sanctions and International Enforcement. 2nd ed. London: MacMillan.
Pape, R.A. (1997). Why Economic Sanctions do not Work. International Security, 22(2), 90-136.
Drury, A.C. (1998). Revisiting Economic Sanctions Reconsidered. Journal of Peace Research, 35(4), 497-509.
Hufbauer, G.C., Schott, J.J., & Elliott, K.A. (1990). Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy. Washington, DC: Peterson Institute.
Hufbauer, G.C., Schott, J.J., & Elliott, K.A. (2007). Economic Sanctions Reconsidered. 3rd ed. Washington, DC.
Masters, J. (June 24, 2024). What Are Economic Sanctions? Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved from https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-are-economic-sanctions.
Bergeijk van, P.A.G. (2015). Sanctions Against Iran – A Preliminary Economic Assessment. In Dreyer, I. & Luengo-Cabrera, J. (Eds.). On target? EU Sanctions as Security Policy Tools. Paris: European Union Institute for Security Studies, 49-56.
Biersteker, T.J. & Portela, C. (2015). EU Sanctions in Context: Three Types. Paris: European Union Institute for Security Studies. Brief.
Boogaerts, A. (2020). Short-Term Success, Long-Term Failure? Explaining the Signalling Effects of EU Misappropriation Sanctions Following Revolutionary Events in Tunisia, Egypt, and Ukraine. Journal of International Relations and Development, 23(1), 67-91. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41268-018-0137-1.
Grebe, J. (2010). And they are Still Targeting: Assessing the Effectiveness of Targeted Sanctions Against Zimbabwe. Africa Spectrum, 45(1), 3-29. https://doi.org/10.1177/000203971004500101.
Vovchuk, L. (2023). Sanction Policy of the European Union Against Iran in the 21st Century. Acta De Historia & Politica: Saeculum XXI, 05, 46-54. https://doi.org/10.26693/ahpsxxi2023.05.046.
Bali, M., & Rapelanoro, N. (2021). How to Simulate International Economic Sanctions: a multipurpose index modelling illustrated with EU sanctions against Russia. International Economics, 168, 25-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2021.06.004.
Beaucillon, C. (2012). How to Choose your Restrictive Measures? Practical Guide to EU Sanctions. Paris: EU Institute for Security Studies
Giumelli, F. (2013). How EU Sanctions Work: a New Narrative. Paris: EU Institute for Security Studies.
Giumelli, F. (2013). The Success of Sanctions: Lessons Learned from the EU Experience. Farnham: Ashgate.
Council of the European Union. Doc. No. 10198/1/04 "Basic Principles on the Use of Restrictive Measures (Sanctions)". (June 7, 2004). Rev. 1, para. 3. Retrieved from https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-10198-2004-REV-1/en/pdf.
Council of the European Union. Doc. No. 15579/03 "Guidelines on Implementation and Evaluation of Restrictive Measures (Sanctions) in the Framework of the EU Common Foreign and Security Policy". (2018). Init, paragraphs 94, 95. Retrieved from https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-5664-2018-INIT/en/pdf.
Restrictive Measures (Sanctions) – Update of the EU Best Practices for the Effective Implementation of Restrictive Measures. (2018). Retrieved from https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-8519-2018-INIT/en/pdf.
Farrell, H. (2022). The Modern History of Economic Sanctions. Retrieved from https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/modern-history-economic-sanctions.
Erdbrink, T. (November, 3-4, 2012). For Iran’s Sick, Sanctions Turn Lethal as Drugs Vanish. International Herald Tribune, 1.
Conlon, P. (1995). The UN's Questionable Sanctions Practice. Aussenpolitik [German Foreign Affairs Review], 46(4), 327-338.
Weiss, T.G. (1999). Sanctions as a Foreign Policy Tool: Weighing Humanitarian Impulses. Journal of Peace Research, 36(5), 499-509. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343399036005001.
Jones, E., & Whitworth, A. (2014). The unintended consequences of European sanctions on Russia. Survival, 56 (5), 21-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2014.962797.
Hellquist, E. (2016). Either with us or against us? Third-Country Alignment with EU Sanctions Against Russia/Ukraine. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 26(3), 997-1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2016.1230591.
Klymosiuk, A. (2023). The Mechanism of Implementation of the Sanctions Policy of the European Union. Aspects of public administration, 11(4), 42-46. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15421/152351.
Kukartsev, O. (2023). EU Sanctions Policy as a Means of Countering Russian Imperialism. Chronicle of Volyn, 28, 256-260. https://doi.org/10.32782/2305-9389/2023.28.37.
Shamrayeva, V.M. (2022). Legal Foundations of the Sanctions Policy of the European Union. Law Journal, 4, 205-211. https://doi.org/10.32850/sulj.2022.4.3.34.
Sharov, O.M. (2016). International Sanctions Policy Against the Russian Federation. Strategic Panorama, 2, 27-37.
Yakoviyk, I., & Turenko, A. (2023). Confiscation of Russian Assets for the Restoration of Ukraine: Legal Problems of Implementation. Problems of Legality, 161), 6-29. https://doi.org/10.21564/2414-990X.161.277365.
Bergeijk, van P.A.G. (December 10, 2021). Introduction to the Research handbook on Economic Sanctions. In Research Handbook on Economic Sanctions (pp. 1-24) Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781839102721.00006.
Morgan, T. C., Bapat, N., & Krustev, V. (2009). The Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions, 1971-2000. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 26(1), 9-110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894208097668.
Bonetti, S. (1997). The Analysis and Interpretation of Economic Sanctions. Journal of Economic Studies, 24(5), 324-48.
Drezner, D.W. (Winter, 2000). Bargaining, Enforcement, and Multilateral Sanctions: When is Cooperation Counterproductive? International Organization, 54(1), 73-102. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081800551127.
Drezner, D.W. (1999). The Sanctions Paradox: Economic Statecraft and International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511549366.
Bergeijk, van P.A.G. (1994). Economic Diplomacy, Trade, and Commercial Policy: Positive and Negative Sanctions in a New World Order. Edward Elgar.
Bergeijk, van P.A.G., & Siddiquee, M.S.H. (May 05, 2015). Bias and methodological change in economic sanction reconsidered. Economics-Ejournal Paper, 33. Retrieved from http://www.economics-ejournal.org/economics/discussionpapers/2015-33.
Peksen, D. (September, 2019). When Do Imposed Economic Sanctions Work? A Critical Review of the Sanctions Effectiveness Literature. Defence and Peace Economics, 30(6), 635-647. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2019.1625250.
Mulder, N. (2022). The History of Economic Sanctions as a Tool of War. Yale University Press. Retrieved from https://yalebooks.yale.edu/2022/02/24/the-history-of-economic-sanctions-as-a-tool-of-war/.
Farrell, H. (March 1, 2022). A Review of Nicholas Mulder "The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War". Yale University Press. Retrieved from: https:// https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/modern-history-economic-sanctions.
Covenant of the League of Nations. (June 28, 1919). ICC Legal-Tools. Retrieved from https://legal-tools.org/doc/106a5f/pdf.
Letzler, B. (2022). The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War. Journal of International Economic Law, 25(4), 703-707. https://doi.org/10.1093/jiel/jgac039.
Filippi, F. (September 06, 2022). The "Unfair Sanctions" Against Fascist Italy: the Story of an Announced Failure. Domani. Retrieved from https://www.editorialedomani.it/politica/mondo/sanzioni-italia-fascismo-storia-guerra-ucraina-russia-scenari-domani-di6qvuih.
: Hundreds of Upstate NY Women Send their Wedding Rings to Benito Mussolini. (October 24, 2018). Syracuse. Retrieved from https://www.syracuse.com/vintage/2018/10/why_did_upstate_ny_women_send_their_wedding_rings_to_benito_mussolini_in_1936.html.
Vaillant, F. (2017). Economic Sanctions and International Pressures. Alternatives Non-Violentes, 185, 17-20. https://doi.org/10.3917/anv.185.0017.
United Nations Charter (full text). United Nations.. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter/full-text.
High Commissioner Calls for Critical Re-Evaluation of the Human Rights Impact of Unilateral Sanctions. (September 16, 2021). Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/en/2021/09/high-commissioner-calls-critical-re-evaluation-human-rights-impact-unilateral-sanctions.
Ilieva, J., Dashtevski, A., & Kokotovic, F. (2018). Economic sanctions in international law. UTMS Journal of Economics, 9(2), 201-211. Retrieved from chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.utmsjoe.mk/files/Vol.%209%20No.%202/UTMSJOE-2018-0902-09-Ilieva-Dashtevski-Kokotovic.pdf.
Ellis, E. (2021). The Ethics of Economic Sanctions: Why Just War Theory is Not the Answer. Res Publica, 27, 409-426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-020-09483-z.
Early, B. R., & Schulzke, M. (March 1, 2019). Still unjust, Just in Different Ways: How Targeted Sanctions Fall Short of Just War Theory's Principles. International Studies Review, 21(1), 57-80. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viy012. ·
Giumelli, F. (2015). Understanding United Nations Targeted Sanctions: an Empirical Analysis. International Affairs, 91(6), 1351-1368. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12448.
Ladurner, F. (2023). An Ethics of Sanctions? Attempt and Critique of the Moral Justification of Economic Sanctions. Conatus-Journal of Philosophy, 8(2), 313-343. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4327-926X.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/.
Judgment of the European Court of Human Rights No. 5809/08 in the case of Al-Dulimi and Montana Management Inc. v. Switzerland. (November 26, 2013). Retrieved from https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-138948%22]}.
Germani, F., März, J.W., Clarinval, C. & Biller-Andorno, N. (2022). Economic Sanctions, Healthcare and the Right to Health. BMJ Global Health, 7(7). https://orcid.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009486.
Dix, A. (1914). The World Economic War: Its Weapons and its Goals. Leipzig: Hirzel. Retrieved from https://digital.ub.uni-paderborn.de/ihd/content/titleinfo/7276379.
Eltzbacher, P. (Ed.). (1914). German National Nutrition and the English Starvation Plan. Braunschweig, Verlag von Friedr: Vieweg & Sohn.
Gruntzel, J. (1917). The Boycott as a Trade Policy Weapon. World Economic Archive, 237-241.
Kahl, F. (1917). The Paris Economic Conference. World Economic Archive, 9. 217-229.
Phillips, G.I. (1920). Economic Blockade. LQ Rev., 36, 227.
Zimmern, A. (1918). The Economic Weapon in the War Against Germany. London: G. Allen & Unwin. Retrieved from Connecticut State Library Stacks (D635.Z5 1918).
De Launay, L. (1918). Post-War Economic Problems: II: The Supply of Raw Materials: The Economic Weapon. Revue des Deux Mondes (1829–1971), 46(3), 658-692.
Asschenfeldt, F., & Trecker, M. (2021). To Strangle Bolshevism in its Cradle. The Entente’s Blockade of Soviet Russia. Journal OE Zeitschrift Osteuropa, 71, 10–12, 47-58. https://doi.org/10.35998/oe-2021-0077.
Lenz, F. (1920). Changes in International Economic Policy. World Economic Archive, 202-211.
[Hildebrand, K. (1994). Reich-Great Power-Nation: Reflections on the History of German Foreign Policy 1871-1945. Historical Journal, 259(1), 369-390.
[Francis, E.V. (1941). The blockade and the New Economic Order. The Political Quarterly, 12(1), 40-52.
Spiegel, H.W. (1942). The Economics of Total War. (pp. XIV 410.). New York and London: Appleton-Centure.
Lamrani, S. (2013). The Economic War Against Cuba: A Historical and Legal Perspective on the US blockade. NYU Press. 144 p.
Shneyer, P. A., & Barta, V. (1981). The Legality of the US Economic Blockade of Cuba Under International Law. Case W. Res. J. Int'l L., 13, 451.
Luttrell, C.B. (1980). The Russian Grain Embargo: Dubious Success. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, 62(7), 2-8.
Paarlberg, R.L. (1980). Lessons of the Grain Embargo. Foreign Affairs, 59(1), 144-162.
Chen, L.S., & Evers, M.M. (2023). Wars without Gun Smoke: Global Supply Chains, Power Transitions, and Economic Statecraft. International Security, 48(2), 164-204. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00473.
Blackwill, R.D., & Harris, J.M. (2016). War by Other Means: Geoeconomics and Statecraft. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Farrell, H., & Newman, A.L. (2023). Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy. New York: Henry Holt.
Mastanduno, M. (1988). Trade as a Strategic Weapon: American and alliance Export Control Policy in the Early Postwar Period. International Organization, 42(1), 121-150. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300007153.
Kaempfer, W.H., & Lowenberg, A.D. (March 1999). Unilateral Versus Multilateral International Sanctions: A Public Choice Perspective. International Studies Quarterly, 43(1), 37-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/0020-8833.00110.
Sanctions, Peacemaking and Reform: Recommendations for U.S. Policymakers. Retrieved from: https://www.crisisgroup.org/united-states/8-sanctions-peacemaking-and-reform-recommendations-us-policymakers.
Life under sanctions How it was in Italy. Retrieved from: https://daily.afisha.ru/archive/vozduh/art/zhizn-pod-sankciyami-kak-eto-bylo-v-italii/.
Kaempfer, W.H., & Lowenberg, A.D. (2007). Chapter 27. The Political Economy of Economic Sanctions. Handbook of Defense Economics, 2, 867-911. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-0013(06)02027-8.
Jakupec, V. (2024). The Sanctions Wars: Impacts and Consequences. In Dynamics of the Ukraine War. Contributions to International Relations. (pp. 59-69). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52444-8_5.
Rosefielde, S., & Bernstam, M. (2024). Russo-Ukrainian War: Limits of Western Economic Sanctions. Acta Oeconomica, 74(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1556/032.2024.00001.
Bali, M., Rapelanoro, N. & Pratson, L.F. (April, 2024). Sanctions Effects on Russia: A Possible Sanction Transmission Mechanism? European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-024-09578-w.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Іван Яковюк, Євген Новіков
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
